To decide if an article is needed before a noun or which one to choose, ask yourself the following question:
The flowchart with questions can be complemented with the classification below, in which more nuanced explanations of articles are provided. This fairly non-traditional classification comes from Caplan, N. (2015).Grammar Choices for Graduate and Professional Writers.University of Michigan Press.
Articles determine or specify whether a noun is general or specific in its references. The questions we ask to determine if the noun is general or specific are: is it all things (generic reference), one of many things (indefinite reference), or this one thing (definite reference)? Below is the detailed explanation of the three types of references.
Nouns that describe a class, not an individual person or thing, have generic reference; the meaning of the noun isall of it/them. Generic reference can often be seen in general statements used to introduce, define, or summarize ideas.
Explanation |
Example |
Non-Count Nouns Useno articlefor generic reference. |
The development of a testable hypothesis is a key characteristic of goodscience. |
Count Nouns 1. Usea plural noun(with no article). This is the most common use for generic reference. 2. Usea/an + singular noun, especially in definitions. 3. Usethe + singular nounas an alternative with humans, animals, organs of the body, plants, and complex inventions. It is used only in formal contexts. |
1. The process can be intensely demoralizing both forstudentsandteachers. 2.A portfoliois a file containing samples of a child’s work. 3. The basic structure ofthe brainis affected by the sum ofthe adolescent’sexperiences with his or her environment. |
Indefinite reference is appropriate when the reader and/or the writer do not both know the specific identity of the noun. This might be because:
The basic meaning of a noun with indefinite reference isone/some of many.
Explanation |
Example |
Singular Count Nouns Usea/anfor all singular count nouns with indefinite reference. Remember to useanwhen the next word starts with a vowel sound. |
Prior to the 1940s, the teaching of ESL was not regarded asa professionin the United States. [A professionhere means “any profession” so the noun is indefinite]. |
Non-Count Nouns and Plural Nouns No articleis used when the non-count noun or plural noun is with an indefinite reference. |
The presence ofESL studentsshould be an important consideration for all teachers and scholars of writing becauseESL studentscan be found inmany writing coursesacross the United States. |
Special Uses 1. Expression of quantity 2. The meaning of per |
1.a numberof,a pieceof,a sectionof 2. 60 milesan hour, $200an hour |
It is important to mention that there is really difficult to identify the difference with generic reference and indefinite reference with plural and non-count nouns; however, it is not necessary since they have the same grammatical rules.
A definite reference is used when the reader and writer both know or can easily find the exact meaning of the noun. Academic writers use definite reference extensively to connect ideas within and between sentences and to establish sheared knowledge with readers. All common nouns (count and non-count, singular and plural) usethefor definite reference. A noun is definite if:
Explanation |
Example |
It has been previously identified in the text. |
Payne et al. conducted their first cross foster experiment in 1998: Payne and his colleagues performedthe experimentwith Vidua chalybeata, the village indigobird. [The experimentis definite because it was introduced in the first sentence]. |
It is unique (if there is only one of something, it is fully identified for the reader). |
Constant littering has a large negative impact onthe environment. |
The noun phrase includes a superlative adjective, which is necessarily unique (the first, the second, the next, the only, etc.). |
The biggest problemwith conducting the study was a lack of a control group. |
The noun is identifiable due to a modifier or quantifier. |
the U.S. government, the problemof college, the peoplewho supported the association |
The noun is part of a whole group. |
The agricultural sector accounts for about one-fourth ofthecountry’s Gross Domestic Product, two-fifths of该国的出口, and half ofthelabor force. |
Some proper nouns require definite articles, including some countries or territories that are or were comprised of smaller units. |
the Atlantic Ocean, the Antarctic, the White House the United States, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, the Soviet Union |
Another rare exception to the general pattern of not using any articles with proper nouns is to suggest that a person or organization changed over time. These nouns must be qualified with a restrictive relative clause or prepositional phrase. |
Europe is not today what it was when President Bush took office, and it scarcely resemblesthe Europe thatPresident Bill Clinton claimed to know. [The writer distinguishes betweenEurope todayandthe Europe of the past]. |
Read this passage and fill in the blanks with eithera,an,the, or no article.
Much has been learned about _____ brain in ____last 150 years. _____ brain, most complicated organ of ______ body, contains _____ ten billion nerve cells and is divided into ____ two cerebral hemispheres, one on _____right and one on ______left. Interestingly, ____ left hemisphere controls _____ movements on ______right side of ______body, while _____ right hemisphere controls_____ movements on _____ left.
______ researchers also know that______ specific abilities and behaviors are localized; in ____other words, they are controlled by ______specific areas of _____ brain. _____language, it seems, is highly localized in ______ left hemisphere. In_____1860s, Dr. Paul Broca discovered that _____damage to _____front left part of _____brain resulted in_____telegraphic speech similar to that of young children. Soon thereafter, Karl Wernicke found that _____ damage to _____ back left part of_____ brain resulted in ______speech with_____ little semantic meaning. These two regions in______brain are now referred to as _____Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.
Although there is some debate surrounding _____ specialization of the brain, researchers generally agree that _____ speech is controlled by _____left side. There is no debate that in_______ great majority of cases, ______ injuries to ______ left side nearly always have ______impact on ____speech.
Exercise adapted from Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2004).Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills.Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
Last updated 7/16/2018